San Pedro de Atacama History

Pre-history

San Pedro is considered the archaeological capital of Chile and is the regional centre of the Atacameño or Likan Antai culture. Human habitation of the area dates from at least 11,000 years BC, the age of the oldest human remains found to date. The dryness of the environment allows for the excellent preservation of textiles, bone and wooden artefacts, and of human remains, which become mummified by the arid climate.

The first human groups, believed to be hunter-gatherers from the altiplano, arrived more than 10,000 years ago, at a time when large lakes had formed in the Atacama depression, of which the present-day Salar de Atacama is a remnant, and supporting generous numbers of camelids and other wildlife. For over 6,000 years, the first inhabitants maintained a subsistence lifestyle based on resources provided by the ecosystem.

Over time, and probably in response to following natural wild animal movements, the process of domestication of the wild camalid species - primarily for wool and meat, but the hide (leather) and bone were also utilised and the excrement was used as fuel or fertilizer. This process is believed to have begun 4,000-5,000 years ago, after the formation of the Isthmus of Panama and arrival of camalid ancestor species from North America.

As a result these early pastoral farmers developed a regular pattern of summer grazing of animals at higher altitudes, allowing the grasses of oases to regenerate, and returning to the lower areas of the oasis in winter.

These localised movements allowed the growth of permanent communities and associated agricultural development, with the cultivation of crops such as maize, beans, pumpkins, potatoes and quinoa (one of main pre-Colombian food sources and of high nutritional value).

However, a period of dryness changed the habits of these early Atacameño communities. A shortage of rains during 3,000 to 1,500 BC decreased the water levels of the lakes, and forced the early human settlers into the ravines and gorges with springs and streams, and probably stimulating the development of early agricultural and animal husbandry practices.

Villages such as Tulor, possibly dating from as early as 800 BC, are testament to the achievements of these early people, with evidence of ceramic production, weaving, metallurgy and irrigation.

Permanent settlements of Toconao (100 BC - 100 AD) and Sequitor (100 BC - 400 AD), Peine and Sociare established. The community around the San Pedro oasis, with better water supplies, became the largest town with biggest influence - beginnings of San Pedro or Likan antai culture and characterised by agro-pastoral communities based in family groups or ayllus, for example Tulor, Beter and Coya.

Aymaran Origins

The Aymara language is spoken by the Native American Aymara people of the Andes. Aymara, along with Quechua (language of the Inca) and Spanish, is an official language of Peru and Bolivia, and is also spoken to a lesser extent northern Chile and in Northwest Argentina. The Aymara people are believed to have lived in the Andes for more than 2,000 years, pre-dating the Inca who ruled over large parts of the west of South America.

The Aymara have an apparently unique perception of time, and along with Quechua, are the only languages where they represent the past as in front of them and the future as behind them. All other languages conceptualize the ego as moving forward into the future, with the back to the past.

Pachamama is the goddess most revered by the indigenous people of the Andes. Pachamama is usually translated as 'Mother Earth' but a more literal translation would be 'Mother Universe' - in Aymara and Quechua 'mama' translates as mother and 'pacha' as world, space-time or the universe. Her honour is toasted before every meeting or festivity by spilling a small amount of drink, usually chicha on the floor, before drinking the rest. This toast is called 'challa' or 'pago' (payment) and is made almost everyday. Other ceremonies are carried out in special times, such as upon leaving for a trip or upon passing an apacheta - rock pile beacons used as landmarks and also as a ritual offering in itself. Traditional priests, known as 'yatiris' in Aymara, assist in performing special rites and rituals to bring good luck or the good will of the goddess.

Tiwanaku Influence

This Pre-Inca culture developed for almost 1,000 years on the shores Lake Titicaca (600km distant) in Bolivia during the Middle Period (400 - 1,000 AD) and extended strong economic, political, artistic, cultural and especially religious influence in the Atacama region as it reached its height, around 600 - 800 AD. The Titicaca Basin is the most productive environment in the area with predictable and abundant rainfall, which the Tiwanaku culture learned to harness and use in their farming.

The Tiwanaku however did not establish permanent settlements, instead maintaining trading relationships with other communities through camelid caravans. San Pedro had by this time probably become an important trading point for salt and animals, lying at a strategic crossing point from the Andes.

Their culture had a great ideological influence on the Atacameno people, and there is a strong record of their presence in archaeological evidence from the area, including for example ceramics and carved tablets for the inhalation of hallucinogens. The Tiwanaku shamen and supernatural belief system, through which they sought ideological influence and common conception, is recognised to have provided a deep connection and influence on the evolving Atacameño culture.

The Tiwanaku gained its power through the trade it implemented between all of the communities within its empire, gaining their status by control of the surplus of food obtained from all regions and redistributed among all the people. Control of llama herds became very significant to Tiwanaku, as they were essential for carrying goods back and forth between the central and the periphery regions.

The Tiwanaku power base grew along with the surplus of resources until about AD 950 At this time a slight shift in climate occurred, resulting in a significant drop in precipitation in the Titicaca Basin, with some archaeologists venturing to suggest even a great drought. As rainfall fell many of the communities away from Lake Titicaca began to produce fewer crops. As the production of food dropped, the Tiwanaku power began to fall and retract. The Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000.

It is often assumed that the Aymara language expanded with the Tiwanaku culture, as it covers a similar geographic range, being focussed around the shores of Lake Titikaka and Altiplano to the south, however this relationship is not certain.

San Pedro Culture

The Tiwanaku influence eventually declined around 900 AD with the beginning of period of great drought in the Lake Titicaca region, and the subsequent collapse of the Tiwanaku culture left the San Pedro towns and communities to fortify themselves against outside threats and leading to a certain sense of unity from the diversity that characterized the small communities that were established in the Salar de Atacama regions.

Agricultural and community patterns were established within the ayllu system typical of the Andes region. Ayllu is a Quechua and Aymara word referring to a network of local families in a given area. It is a pre-Columbian indigenous local community model and includes the concept of mita, a Quechua word for community public service in Inca society, where infrastructure and other tasks are co-ordinated by mandatory joint labour.

It is during this late Middle Period (900 AD - 1450 AD) that the defensive forts or pukarás of Turi, Quitor, Lasana and Vilama were first built in strategic locations - Quitor was the most important in region and was first inhabited after the links between San Pedro and the Tiwanaku had dissolved. Located near the main sources of water in the area, the building of the Pukará de Quitor, and other Pukarás such as Vilama, also show that social control over resources began to take greater importance as the size and complexity of settlements increased.

Pukará is the name given by Incas to the buildings that acted as forts, constructed by the Atacameño communities to defend themselves from neighbours and rivals. The Pukará of Quitor is estimated to be more than 700 years old.

During this period the San Pedro culture became highly distinctive in its own right, which the development of complex community structures and an identifiable artistic style.

Inca Domination

It is against this cultural background, and over which, the Inca Empire expanded and imposed its political influence across the region, during the Late Period (1450 - 1550 AD). Known as the 'children of the sun' from to their religious beliefs, the Inca Empire developed in the 12th century AD in Cusco (modern day Peru) and expanded through conquest of territory during the late 1400's. Southern expansion included San Pedro in 1471 and the establishment of an administrative centre at Catarpe, upstream of the Pukará, and the start of 60 years of Inca domination and subjugation of the region.

The Inca over-imposed the religious traditions and beliefs of the Atacameño culture with their own worship of Inti, the sun god, to legitimize their power and authority, and imposed their 'official' language - Quechua in the region, replacing the local Kunza language. Quechua also shares a large amount of vocabulary with Aymaran language, although the relationship may be a result of a long period of interchange between cultures rather than being related linguistically.

The consolidation of Inca rule in the San Pedro region resulted in strong hierarchical differentiation and social inequality, leading to a series of internal conflicts. These formed the background of the first Spanish arrivals, which increased the already chaotic situation.

See Chile History section for more information on the influence of the Inca Empire in Chile.

Spanish Conquest

Deigo de Almagro, 'discoverer' of the territory of Chile, passed through the oasis in 1536 on his hurried return to Cusco from the south. Some years later, in 1540, Francisco de Aguirre, and soon after Pedro de Valdivia, arrived from the north. Locals moved from the villages into living in the defended pukarás.

Francisco de Aguirre, supported by Yanacona Indians, achieved the definitive taking of Pukará de Quitor in 1540, and ordered the beheading of many local chiefs and community leaders - which remained displayed on the walls of Pukará until arrival of Pedro de Valdivia a short time later, and the oasis became known as 'the town of the heads'.

In 1557 the territory was assigned to the High Court of Charcas ('Upper Peru', under the administration of the Viceroyalty of Peru, in present day Bolivia). Soon after the Spanish established a church and administrative centre which would become the colonial centre of the town which we know today.